Harnessing the Potential of the Salton Sea: A Hub for Sustainable Energy and Battery Materials
In 2023, global demand for crude oil reached an astounding 102.21 million barrels per day, including biofuels, with the transportation sector alone consuming over two-thirds of this supply. The United States, for instance, used approximately 13.7 million barrels of petroleum per day. Such high energy demands from the transportation sector, heavily reliant on petroleum, presents significant challenges as the world strives for increased energy security and environmental sustainability.
As of February 15, 2024, there were more than 40 million electric vehicles (EVs) in operation worldwide, with projections indicating a surge close to a billion by 2050. This exponential growth is set to significantly escalate the demand for materials required in battery manufacturing. To successfully transition to sustainable energy, the world will need to produce a magnitude more metals and materials then the current volumes.
While battery electric vehicles (BEVs) produce zero tailpipe emissions, their production and material sourcing are not without environmental impact. Greenhouse gas emissions are released, particularly during the production of materials and battery manufacture. The cumulative emissions from mining, refining materials, cell manufacturing, and battery assembly processes for high-nickel chemistries can be as high as 100 to 200kg CO2eq/kWh for cells produced in non domestic markets. However, this can be reduced to 49 to 57 kg CO2eq/kWh for cells produced in the United States, employing a domestic supply chain and renewable energy sources. The environmental impact of batteries produced abroad could potentially outweigh the benefits of replacing internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEVs) with BEVs.
Known Geothermal Resource Areas in Imperial County, California
A promising development in this landscape is the Salton Sea area, where three proposed lithium projects are set to utilize direct lithium extraction (DLE) technologies, co-located at geothermal power plants. Developers BHE Renewables, EnergySource Minerals, and Controlled Thermal Resources (CTR) are actively working on projects to extract lithium from geothermal brine at existing or new geothermal power plants in Imperial County. According to data from the California Energy Commission (CEC), there are currently 11 geothermal power plants in the Salton Sea Known Geothermal Resource Area (SS-KGRA), with a combined installed capacity of approximately 414 megawatts (MW).
Estimates are that the geothermal resources in the SS-KGRA could support the development of between 2,330 and 2,950 MW of additional geothermal power plants, which is six times the current installed capacity. This expansion holds the potential to significantly bolster the region's capability to produce sustainable energy and supply crucial materials for the battery industry, thus contributing to global efforts toward energy transition and environmental stewardship.
History of the Salton Sea:
The Salton Sea, located in southeastern California, is a large, shallow, saline lake situated in the Salton Basin. It was formed in 1905 when the Colorado River breached an irrigation canal and flooded the previously dry Salton Sink. The resulting inflow formed what is now the largest lake in California, with a surface area that has fluctuated over time due to evaporation and changes in water management.
In the mid-20th century, the Salton Sea briefly became a popular resort area, known for its recreational opportunities such as boating, fishing, and birdwatching. It supported a vibrant ecosystem with a variety of fish and bird species, making it a significant stopover for migratory birds on the Pacific Flyway. However, by the 1970s, environmental issues began to plague the lake. Agricultural runoff from surrounding farms introduced high levels of nutrients and pesticides, leading to algal blooms and declining water quality. Fish die-offs became common, contributing to a decline in the lake's appeal as a recreational destination.
Today, the Salton Sea faces numerous environmental challenges. The lake's water level has been steadily declining due to reduced inflows and increasing evaporation rates, exacerbated by water diversions and agricultural practices. As the lake shrinks, the exposed lake bed contributes to dust storms, which pose serious health risks to nearby communities. The lake's high salinity levels further complicate efforts to restore its ecosystem, as many fish and bird species struggle to survive in its increasingly saline waters.
Efforts to address the Salton Sea's problems have included various restoration plans and projects. The 10-Year Salton Sea Management Program, initiated in 2017, aims to protect public health and the environment while supporting local economies. Projects under this program include habitat restoration, dust suppression, and water management initiatives. However, the success of these efforts has been limited due to the complexity of the lake's environmental and the Imperial Valley economic issues.
Hydrology of the Salton Sea Area:
Surface water is conveyed from the Colorado River to the Imperial Valley by the IID through thousands of miles of canals. Irrigation typically consumes over 95% of IID's Colorado River supplies to the region; in 2023, over 97% of IID water was used for agriculture, whereas 1.5% was for municipal potable (drinking water) uses and nearly 1% was used for commercial and industrial purposes, including geothermal production.
Though a large groundwater basin stretching over 1,000,000 acres underlies the Imperial Valley region, poor groundwater quality prevents this basin from being a useful source of water for agricultural, municipal, or industrial purposes. Most locations where water has been tested indicate that the water is undesirable for use without extensive treatment due to high total dissolved solids and high levels of fluoride and boron.
Most groundwater wells in the region are less than 600 m (2,000 ft) deep, which is considered shallow well water. These wells are isolated from deeper wells, such as those used for geothermal brine extraction. Further, the surface shallow aquifers and the Salton Sea are hydraulically separated from each other by deposits with low transmissivities. The primary source of recharge water for local aquifers is unlined agricultural canals
Notable Environmental and Community Related Concerns:
Construction activities would generate CO2e, PM2.5, and PM10 emissions that could significantly impact regional air quality. Emission sources would include heavy equipment used for excavation and grading, cranes, tractors, loaders, backhoes, pavers, and on-road motor vehicles for equipment and material deliveries, as well as construction workers’ vehicles. Grading and activities on unpaved roads would contribute to fugitive PM10 and PM2.5 emissions.
Proposed industrial and renewable energy uses may involve various materials and processes that are subject to extensive regulation at the local, state, and federal levels to ensure environmental protection and public safety. Transportation, storage, and disposal/recycling of such products are extensively regulated at the local, state, and federal levels to prevent environmental harm and safeguard public health. Examples of regulated geothermal products and processes include geothermal fluids to prevent groundwater contamination and brine management to prevent environmental impacts and protect water resources.
Calipatria High School and Fremont Primary School both fall within a distance of one-quarter mile from some proposed projects. This proximity raises concerns about potential hazardous emissions or the handling of hazardous or acutely hazardous materials, substances, or waste in close proximity to a school.
Based on archival review, prehistoric habitation sites with recorded human remains exist within the surrounding areas. As such, there is a potential for archaeological resources within the proposed project locations, and build-out of planned land uses may result in earthwork activities that could disturb unknown resources.
AB-52 Consultation notices were sent to:
- Quechan Tribe of the Fort Yuma Reservation
- Diegueno Tribes
- Torres-Martinez Desert Cahuilla Indians
SB-18 Consultation Letters were sent to the tribes/tribal representatives listed below:
- Agua Caliente Band of Cahuilla Indians
- Augustine Band of Cahuilla Mission Indians
- Barona Group of the Captain Grande
- Cabazon Band of Mission Indians
- Cahuilla Band of Indians
- Campo Band of Diegueno Mission Indians
- Ewiiaapaayp Band of Kumeyaay Indians
- Iipay Nation of Santa Ysabel
- Inaja-Cosmit Band of Indians
- Jamul Indian Village
- Kwaaymii Laguna Band of Mission Indians
- La Posta Band of Diegueno Mission Indians
- Los Coyotes Band of Cahuilla and Cupeno Indians
- Manzanita Band of Kumeyaay Nation
- Mesa Grande Band of Diegueno Mission Indians
- Morongo Band of Mission Indians
- Quechan Tribe of the Fort Yuma Reservation
- Ramona Band of Cahuilla
- San Pasqual Band of Diegueno Mission Indians
- Santa Rosa Band of Cahuilla Indians
- Soboba Band of Luiseno Indians
- Sycuan Band of the Kumeyaay Nation
- Torres-Martinez Desert Cahuilla Indians
- Twenty-Nine Palms Band of Mission Indians
- Viejas Band of Kumeyaay Indians
No tribes have requested consultation; however, all tribes that were contacted have expressed a clear and unified stance, requesting that Obsidian Butte remains untouched.
Special-status plant species evaluated for potential occurrence in the planning area include Harwood's milk-vetch, iodine bush scrub, saltgrass flat, arrow-weed thickets, and mesquite thickets. Special-status wildlife species evaluated include birds such as the burrowing owl, redhead, mountain plover, snowy plover, gull-billed tern, least bittern, loggerhead shrike, California black rail, American white pelican, Yuma Ridgeway's rail, black skimmer, desert pupfish, and others. The presence of sensitive habitats, special-status plant species, and special-status wildlife species indicates the ecological significance of the area.
Proposed projects could potentially cause substantial adverse effects, including the risk of loss, injury, or death involving strong seismic ground shaking. The area where the proposed projects are located, specifically the SHA (Seismic Hazard Area) in Southern California, is known for being seismically active, with numerous Holocene-active faults capable of producing significant seismic events.
The presence of various soil types, some of which have low permeability and moderate to poor drainage, suggests that the proposed projects could potentially lead to soil erosion or loss of topsoil if appropriate erosion control measures are not implemented. Factors such as the project's construction activities, grading, vegetation removal, and inadequate erosion control practices could contribute to soil erosion and the loss of topsoil in areas.
Expanding the number of geothermal power plants and creating lithium extraction facilities would entail the conversion of significant portions of land classified as Prime Farmland (7,782.21 acres), Farmland of Statewide Importance (16,012.86 acres), and Unique Farmland (12.26 acres) to non-agricultural use.
Economic Impact of Lithium Extraction at the Salton Sea:
Lithium extraction operations at the Salton Sea have the potential to create significant employment opportunities, contributing to the local economy in the Imperial Valley. While specific wage and salary amounts can vary based on job roles and experience levels, jobs in lithium extraction typically span a range of technical, operational, and administrative positions.
The average household income in the Salton Sea area, specifically in the Imperial County region where the Salton Sea is located, varies but tends to be lower compared to state and national averages. In Imperial County, the median household income was approximately $48,000 per year.
In the geothermal power and lithium extraction industries, average salaries can vary widely. Engineers and geologists may earn salaries ranging from $80,000 to $150,000 per year, depending on experience and qualifications. Technicians and support staff can typically earn salaries ranging from $40,000 to $80,000 annually, also depending on their roles and experience.
The economic impact of lithium extraction extends beyond direct employment. The industry can stimulate local businesses, such as suppliers of equipment and services, as well as support industries like transportation and hospitality and the expansion of local infrastructures, such as roads. Lithium Extraction also may lead to the construction of new homes and businesses, as a result of a notable increase in population. This economic diversification is particularly crucial for areas like the Salton Sea region, which has historically faced economic challenges. The projects will also bring in funding needed to mitigate the environmental problems created by the continuing lowering of the water level in the Salton Sea, environmental issues that is creating health hazards to the local communities.
According to the Imperial Valley Economic Development Corporation's (IVEDC) Economic Impact Assessment, every $1 spent on payroll at the co-located geothermal power plants and lithium recovery facilities proposed by CTR would generate an additional $1.23 for the community in local taxes and earnings. If all planned phases are completed, the estimated local impact would be 4,285 jobs created and $359.3 million in annual earnings and taxes, In May 2022, Imperial County estimated the combination of geothermal energy and recovery of minerals from geothermal brine could double Imperial County's gross domestic product in the next 5-10 years.
EnergySource Minerals stated that "the project will provide $23 million annually in taxes and fees that will be used for public schools, social services, road repair and police and fire. We will also provide $18 million in payroll and local services each year as well as $2.5 million in local infrastructure.”
The fiscal year 2022–2023 state budget includes significant financial provisions relating to Lithium Valley development:
A newly created volume-based tax on lithium extraction that will take effect on January 1, 2023.
The tax rate of $400 per metric ton for the first 20,000 tons of lithium carbonate equivalent extracted, $600 per metric ton extracted over 20,000 up to 30,000 metric tons, and $800 per metric ton for lithium carbonate equivalent extracted over 30,000 metric tons
Eighty percent of the moneys collected will go to counties where the extraction is occurring, in the same proportion as the tax was collected from those counties. Imperial County is required to distribute no less than 30 percent of the funds it receives to Imperial County communities directly and indirectly impacted by lithium extraction.
Twenty percent of the moneys collected must be deposited into a newly created Lithium Sub-account within the Salton Sea Restoration Fund administered by the California Natural Resources Agency and allocated for:
Operations and maintenance of restoration projects or other public works projects in existence on January 1, 2023 or developed by the state under the Salton Sea Management Plan or an applicable State Water Resources Control Board order.
Restoration projects required to meet the state’s obligations in any state plan or order related to the management of the Salton Sea.
Grants for community engagement, public amenity, capital improvement, or community benefit projects, including projects to help build capacity for meaningful public participation and outreach, at and around the Salton Sea and those communities impacted by the Salton Sea’s restoration and development.
The law also requires that by December 31, 2023, the Department of Tax and Fee Administration, in consultation with the Department of Finance, prepare a study of replacing the volume-based tax on the extraction of lithium with an equivalent tax based on gross receipts.
$5 million of general fund monies allocated to Imperial County for specified activities related to the development of lithium recovery were directed to be used as follows:
$3.8 million to prepare the county’s programmatic environmental impact report (EIR) and a health impact assessment and support community outreach for geothermal energy development and lithium extraction, processing, production, and related manufacturing activities within the county.
$800,000 to distribute grants for engagement by community-based organizations in the county on the programmatic EIR created by the county for lithium and geothermal energy development efforts in the county.
$350,000 to support the activities of an ombudsperson to engage with stakeholders on lithium extraction, rare-earth minerals mining, and renewable energy generation to provide enhanced communication by and between internal departments within the county and assistance in communication with state and federal agencies.
$80 million in general fund monies for the San Diego State University Brawley Center to support a local workforce pipeline to aid the state's goals for Lithium Valley.
Geothermal Power Production:
The geothermal power plants at the Salton Sea are a significant part of California's renewable energy infrastructure, contributing to both electricity generation and environmental sustainability efforts. Located in the Imperial Valley, this area is one of the most active geothermal fields in the world, benefiting from the intense tectonic activity of the nearby San Andreas Fault system.
Brines flow from production geothermal wells in the SS-KGRA is flashed into steam to power a turbine generator, producing electricity. To minimize scale formation on plant equipment, vessel internals, and associated piping, scaling constituents (mainly iron silicates and amorphous silica) are selectively removed from the brine. Due to the high salinity and mineral content of the brines, which can damage and corrode equipment, the development of the Salton Sea geothermal resource has been particularly difficult and costly. However, this challenge has become an opportunity, requiring advanced chemical engineering and facility designs at the existing power plants.
Freshwater is needed to operate geothermal energy production facilities, cooling towers use 70% of the needed freshwater as makeup water to offset water lost through evaporation. Freshwater is also added to the brine before reinjection to prevent certain constituents from precipitating into solid form in the injection well and causing clogs.
More than 900 MW of new geothermal power plants within Imperial Valley have been proposed to the IID interconnection queue. IID is studying the amount of new geothermal energy that can be added to the existing transmission system and additional transmission infrastructure needs to send the energy to other parts of California and the western United States.
Direct Lithium Extraction:
Direct Lithium Extraction (DLE) technology is being pioneered in the Salton Sea area. Unlike traditional methods that use evaporation ponds, DLE technologies either use membranes for pre-concentration or media that absorb lithium ions, significantly reducing the time needed from years to hours per ton of lithium carbonate. The DLE process consumes considerably less freshwater, and the water used is recovered and reused. Furthermore, brine used in DLE is reinjected back into the reservoir to be reheated, with the local geology allowing the brine to regenerate its lithium content over time.
EnergySource Minerals' Project ATLiS, for example, is expected to use 3,400 acre-feet per year (AFY) of water for producing approximately 17,000 metric tons of lithium carbonate equivalent products. BHE Renewables plans to use no more than 50,000 gallons of freshwater per ton of lithium carbonate. Using this amount, the remaining balance of IID's non-agricultural set-aside water could support roughly 100,200 metric tonnes of lithium carbonate equivalent production per year, including associated lithium chloride recovery. Planned facilities have projected as much as 300,000 metric tonnes of lithium carbonate equivalent production with future expansions.