Carolina’s Tin-Spodumene Belt: Environmental and Social Challenges Facing the Lithium Industry.
How Two Southern States Are Positioning Themselves as Key Players in the Lithium-Ion Battery Industry
Spanning roughly 2 miles in width and extending over 25 miles across the foothills of North Carolina and into parts of South Carolina, the Carolina Tin-Spodumene Belt (TSB) was once one of the most geologically significant lithium-bearing zones in the world. It stretches across counties like Gaston, Cleveland, and Lincoln in North Carolina and into parts of Cherokee County, South Carolina. This belt is defined by its rich deposits of spodumene, a lithium-bearing mineral, along with traces of tin, mica, and feldspar, forming an arc that has drawn attention from geologists and mining companies for decades.
During the mid-20th century, the TSB became a vital source of lithium when mines like Kings Mountain and Hallman-Beam provided materials for industries producing ceramics, lubricants, and early batteries. At its peak, this region supplied a significant share of the global lithium market, helping to shape local economies by providing employment and infrastructure development. However, by the mid 1980s, operations began to decline as global lithium production shifted to cheaper brine deposits in South America, leading to the closure of local mines and the economic stagnation of the communities that depended on them.
Today, the TSB is undergoing a resurgence driven by the global transition to electric vehicles (EVs) and the growing need for lithium-ion batteries. Companies like Albemarle and Piedmont Lithium are reviving old mines and developing new projects, hoping to establish a domestic lithium supply chain critical to the U.S. economy. However, the revival has also sparked social tensions within affected communities. While these projects promise economic revitalization and job creation, they have also raised concerns about environmental degradation, increased traffic, and disruptions to rural life.
Local residents have voiced fears over the impact of new mining operations on air quality, water resources, and property values. Some community groups have mobilized to challenge permits and raise awareness about the potential consequences of lithium mining. At the same time, supporters argue that these developments represent a rare opportunity to reinvigorate economically struggling areas and provide well-paying jobs in a region that has long faced industrial decline.
The renewed activity in the TSB is not just about tapping into mineral wealth—it is becoming a battleground between economic development and environmental stewardship, reflecting broader debates about how societies should balance sustainability with growth. As new mining operations take shape, the future of the TSB will hinge on whether these conflicting priorities can be reconciled, ensuring that local communities benefit from the green revolution without bearing the full burden of its costs.
Formation of Spodumene
Spodumene is scientifically classified as a pyroxene mineral (minerals made up of elements like iron, magnesium, and calcium, along with silica), with a chemical composition of LiAlSi2O6 (lithium aluminum silicate). It forms deep within the Earth’s crust in rocks known as pegmatites. Pegmatites are a type of igneous rock, meaning they form from the cooling of molten material, called magma, beneath the Earth’s surface. However, pegmatites differ from typical igneous rocks in that they cool very slowly, which allows their crystals to grow much larger than usual.
Lithium, along with aluminum, silicon, and oxygen, becomes concentrated in the final stages of magma cooling because these elements don’t fit easily into the early-forming crystals, such as quartz or feldspar. This process causes them to become part of the leftover magma, which eventually crystallizes as spodumene when the conditions are right. Pegmatites containing spodumene usually form near large bodies of granite, another type of igneous rock, because granite provides the heat and conditions needed to create lithium-bearing pegmatites.
Geological Context
Pegmatite dikes are the specific formations where spodumene is found. A dike is a sheet-like body of rock that cuts through other layers of rock. These pegmatite dikes are rich in lithium and other rare elements because the slow crystallization process allows them to concentrate in certain pockets. This geological setting can occur in regions that have experienced tectonic movements, where the Earth’s plates have collided or shifted.
Spodumene deposits are widespread, with major mining operations in:
Australia: Known for the Greenbushes deposit, which is one of the world’s largest and richest lithium mines.
Canada: Provinces like Quebec and Manitoba contain important spodumene-bearing regions.
Brazil and China: Both countries also have notable spodumene deposits, Sichuan Province In China and Eastern and North Eastern Brazil
Africa: Countries like Zimbabwe and Namibia hold significant spodumene resources.
Mining and Processing of Spodumene
Once spodumene deposits are located, traditional hard-rock mining methods are used. This involves drilling, blasting, and removing large amounts of rock. The raw spodumene ore is then processed to extract lithium.
The first step in processing spodumene is crushing, where the mined ore is broken into smaller pieces then the spodumene is concentrated to prepare it for further treatment. The next critical stage is roasting. This involves heating the crushed spodumene to above 1,000°C, which transforms the natural form of spodumene, known as the alpha (α) phase, into a more chemically reactive form called the beta (β) phase. This change is necessary because the α-phase is too stable to react easily in chemical processes that extract lithium.
After roasting, the β-phase spodumene is mixed with sulfuric acid or other chemicals to dissolve the lithium content. This chemical treatment converts spodumene into lithium sulfate, which can then be further processed into lithium carbonate or lithium hydroxide. These lithium precursors are the end-products used in the manufacturing of lithium-ion batteries.
Lithium’s Significance in North Carolina’s Future:
North Carolina has seen a sharp decline in manufacturing specifically in the textile industry over the last few decades. Once a leader in that industry with more than 300,000 workers in the 1990s, the state has struggled as companies outsourced jobs to countries with cheaper labor. Automation and the rise of synthetic materials also played a big role, making it cheaper and easier to produce textiles elsewhere. As consumer preferences shifted and costs went up, many local mills closed, leading to significant job losses and economic struggles in communities that relied on textile production.
In recent years, North Carolina has started to shift its focus toward other industries, like biotechnology and pharmaceuticals. However, the potential for lithium mining and EV production is starting to gain attention as a way to bring new life to the state’s economy. North Carolina has very localized but significant lithium reserves, which are in high demand for batteries in electric vehicles. This could open up thousands of new job opportunities for people who lost their jobs in other manufacturing sectors and help revive some of the struggling communities in the region.
Currently, two major projects are at the forefront of North Carolina’s lithium mining revival: the Piedmont Lithium project in Gaston County and the King’s Mountain mine. The Piedmont Lithium project aims to produce 60,000 metric tons of lithium hydroxide annually, with a recent mining permit granted by the North Carolina Department of Environmental Quality. This project emphasizes sustainable practices, ensuring minimal environmental impact during operations.
Side Note: Piedmont Lithium pulled its application with the U.S. Department of Energy for loans, citing high costs and a sharp drop in lithium prices. The company also scrapped plans for a processing facility in Tennessee, despite getting a $141.7 million grant. CEO Keith Phillips noted the need to conserve cash and be cautious about moving forward with projects, leaving the timeline for the North Carolina site uncertain. They've spent nearly $1.9 million on loan application costs and cut their workforce by almost a third this year.
In contrast, the Kings Mountain mine is set to reopen in 2025-2026, with plans for a zero-emissions operation, showcasing advancements in sustainable mining technology. The collaboration between Albemarle Corporation and Caterpillar Inc. for the Kings Mountain project is particularly noteworthy. This partnership is designed not only to enhance lithium extraction but also to implement innovative, environmentally friendly mining methods. The integration of electric machinery is part of a broader effort to reduce the carbon footprint associated with lithium production. Moreover, the U.S. Department of Defense’s investment of $90 million into the project highlights the strategic importance of securing domestic lithium supplies in the context of national security and technological independence.
Side Note: On September 20, 2024, the U.S. Department of Energy announced a $67.1 million grant to Albemarle U.S. Inc. to support the production of lithium metal anodes (LMA) for advanced lithium-ion batteries. This funding is not for mining; instead, it focuses on improving manufacturing capabilities for battery components, which are crucial for electric vehicles and energy storage.
The shift toward lithium mining and EV production in North Carolina is expected to create jobs and help the state adapt to evolving market demands. With major car manufacturers planning EV production facilities in the state, there is a significant opportunity to strengthen the state's presence in this growing market. A prime example is Toyota Battery Manufacturing North Carolina (TBMNC), which represents a commitment of about $13.9 billion and the creation of over 5,000 jobs, focusing on battery electric vehicles (BEVs) and plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs). By capitalizing on these opportunities, North Carolina could diversify its economy and enhance future stability.
Building a Lithium Economy: South Carolina’s Focus on Secondary Resources and Manufacturing.
The lithium industry in South Carolina is increasingly focusing on lithium-ion battery recycling and production, reflecting a broader trend toward sustainable energy solutions. As electric vehicles gain popularity, there’s a growing recognition of the importance of recycling used lithium-ion batteries. This not only helps recover valuable materials like lithium, cobalt, and nickel but also reduces the environmental impact associated with mining new resources. Companies such as American Battery Technology Company (ABTC) are planning operations in the state, aiming to set up facilities capable of effectively processing and recycling these batteries, contributing to a circular economy.
Side Note: ABTC is building a lithium-ion battery recycling facility in South Carolina, supported by $150 million in federal funding. It will process 100,000 tonnes of materials annually, recovering key minerals like lithium, cobalt, and nickel for a closed-loop U.S. supply chain. Partners include BASF, Siemens, Clemson University, and Argonne National Laboratory. The project will create 1,200 construction jobs, 300 operational jobs.
Several companies and research institutions in South Carolina are also developing innovative recycling technologies to recover lithium and other metals from spent batteries. Collaborations with local universities and research centers, like the Clemson University International Center for Automotive Research (CU-ICAR), located in Greenville, are fostering advancements in recycling techniques. By focusing on battery recycling, the state hopes to minimize waste and make better use of existing resources while supporting the growing EV market and addressing environmental concerns.
In addition to recycling, South Carolina is looking to create a lithium-ion battery production infrastructure. Companies such as electric vehicle battery cell maker AESC plan to spend $1.5 billion to expand their lithium-ion battery manufacturing with a facility in Florence County. AESC will not only create jobs but also help establish a local supply chain that can support EV production. The cells manufactured by the facility will be used in BMW’s electric vehicles. BMW is spending $1 billion to upgrade an existing vehicle manufacturing plant to produce a line of their EVs, as well as an additional $700 million to build a new high-voltage battery assembly facility in nearby Woodruff. Redwood Materials, a Nevada-based lithium-ion recycling and cathode active material (CAM) production company, has partnered with AESC to recycle their production waste insuring a circular economy.
Side Note: AESC, initially founded as a joint venture between Nissan and NEC, is now majority-owned by China’s Envision Group, raising concerns about foreign control over critical supply chains. While AESC focuses on producing advanced battery cells and emphasizes sustainability through recycling, the Chinese ownership has attracted scrutiny. U.S. policymakers worry about the influence of Chinese interests on essential battery technology, especially as the U.S. aims to reduce dependency on foreign-controlled supply chains for EV manufacturing
Overall, the lithium-ion battery recycling and production industry in South Carolina is poised for growth, driven by the increasing demand for sustainable energy solutions. With companies like American Battery Technology Company, BMW, and AESC developing projects, South Carolina has the potential to create a robust ecosystem for battery recycling and manufacturing. By focusing on these areas, the state aims to contribute to a more sustainable and circular economy while tapping into the rapidly expanding global market for lithium-ion batteries.
Environmental Concerns:
Spodumene Mining:
Land Disruption
Open-Pit Mining: Spodumene extraction often involves open-pit mining, which leads to significant land disruption, including habitat destruction and alteration. This affects local biodiversity, potentially leading to species displacement or extinction.
Water Use and Contamination
High Water Consumption: Hard rock mining (spodumene) requires substantial water, which can strain local water resources.
Chemical Leaching: The use of chemicals like sulfuric acid and sodium carbonate in lithium extraction can lead to groundwater and surface water contamination if not managed properly. These chemicals can acidify water bodies, affecting aquatic life.
Air Pollution
Dust and Particulate Matter: Mining operations generate significant dust, which includes silica dust that can be harmful when inhaled, leading to respiratory issues for workers and local communities.
Greenhouse Gases (GHG): The extraction and processing of spodumene are energy-intensive, leading to high CO2 emissions. For instance, spodumene mining releases around 15,690 kg of CO2 per ton of lithium carbonate produced. This figure includes the mining of the ore, beneficiation, concentration, and transport of the concentrate for refinement, which often involves shipping the concentrate to China. However, with the use of low-emission equipment and zero tailpipe emission excavators and haul trucks, coupled with most projects refining the lithium on-site or at facilities within less than a thousand miles from the mine, GHG emissions will be significantly reduced. The facility Tesla is building in Texas to refine spodumene concentrate will also contribute to this reduction.
Tailings and Waste Management
Tailings: The waste from spodumene processing, if not properly managed, can lead to toxic leachates. These tailings might contain heavy metals and other contaminants that can seep into the soil and water, affecting both terrestrial and aquatic life. Current projects will be processing tailings to remove moisture so they can be dry stacked for permanent storage.
Energy Consumption
The process of converting α-spodumene to β-spodumene for lithium extraction requires high temperatures, significantly increasing the carbon footprint due to energy consumption.
Ecosystem Impact
Beyond direct habitat loss, the chemical changes in soil and water can alter ecosystems, affecting plant metabolism and shifting species composition, often reducing biodiversity.
Long-term Environmental Impacts
Restoring mined areas back to their original state or to a sustainable ecosystem is challenging due to the altered soil chemistry and structure, potentially leaving long-term scars on the landscape.
Community Health and Social Impacts
Communities near mining sites can face health risks from air pollution, water contamination, and exposure to chemicals used in the concentration of the spodumene.
Comparative Analysis to Lithium from Brines
Spodumene typically contains more lithium than brine, resulting in greater extraction efficiency and higher yields.
The mining and processing of spodumene enable quicker lithium production than both traditional brine evaporation and even DLE methods, which can be complex and time-consuming. This rapid turnaround is crucial for meeting the rising demand for electric vehicles and renewable energy storage.
Spodumene mining generally requires significantly less water than brine extraction, making it a more sustainable option, especially in water-scarce regions.
Including spodumene mining can enhance U.S. energy security by developing a domestic lithium supply chain, reducing reliance on imports and boosting local economies through job creation in mining and processing.
Conclusion:
The lithium Industry expansion in North and South Carolina offers a key opportunity to create jobs, boost local economies, and bring manufacturing back to the United States. As companies work to meet the growing demand for electric vehicles and lithium-ion batteries, strengthening domestic production is essential to reducing reliance on foreign supply chains. Reviving these industries locally ensures that the economic benefits stay within our communities, supporting long-term growth and stability.
At the same time, balancing production with environmental protection and addressing community concerns will be critical. Residents are rightfully concerned about the impact on air and water quality, so these projects must move forward in a way that respects local resources and quality of life. Beyond economic gains, securing a reliable lithium supply is also vital for national security, helping the U.S. stay competitive and independent in the global market. By building a sustainable and responsive lithium economy, the region can play a key role in both powering the future and revitalizing American manufacturing.
Extraction and Refinement of lithium from Spodumene:
Separation and Concentration of Spodumene.
Froth flotation is a widely used technique in the mining industry, particularly in the concentration of minerals like spodumene, which contains lithium. Here's a detailed explanation of how froth flotation is applied to spodumene:
Preparation of the Ore
Crushing and Grinding: The first step involves crushing the raw spodumene ore to a small size, usually less than 200 micrometers. This size reduction is essential for effective liberation of the mineral from the gangue (unwanted minerals).